When Twitter was founded in , it was envisioned as a microblogging site where groups of friends could send short messages tweets to their friends about what was happening in their lives in real time in a manner akin to texting.

Users could also upload photos, GIFs, and short videos to the site. Twitter initially imposed a character constraint on tweets which was the limit that mobile carriers placed on SMS text messages. The limit was increased to characters in as the popularity of the platform peaked and wireless carrier restrictions on the amount of content users could send were no longer relevant.

Users easily circumvent the character limit by posting multiple tweets in sequence, a practice used frequently by Donald Trump. While the actual number of Twitter followers is difficult to verify as many accounts are dormant or controlled by bot software, it is estimated that there were million active monthly users worldwide in Statista, Still, it took Twitter twelve years to turn a profit for the first time when it increased attention to ad sales Tsukayama, Trump was on Twitter seven years prior to his quest for the presidency.

His signature Twitter style was established during his days on the reality TV program The Apprentice , and it has changed little since he launched his political career. His messages are expressed conversationally using an accessible, informal, fourth-grade vocabulary. They are often conflicting, confusing, and unclear, which allows users to interpret them based on their own preconceptions. His posts are repetitious and have a similar cadence which fosters a sense of believability and familiarity among his loyalists Graham, Social-media users often employ social media to seek out and follow like-minded people and groups which promotes social bonding, reinforces personal and political identities, and provides digital companionship.

Trump has bragged that his control over Twitter paved his path to the White House Tatum, As a presidential candidate, Trump effectively engaged Twitter to publicize his thoughts, attack his long list of enemies, and hijack political discourse. His supporters became ardent followers of his Twitter messages during the campaign. In contrast, Trump made broad, general declarations that lacked evidence Stromer-Galley, and claimed credit for the accomplishments of others Tsur et al.

Trump regularly produces nasty and outlandish tweets to ensure that he remains at the center of attention, even as political and natural disasters move the spotlight. Twitter changes the life cycle of news as developing reports can be readily overtaken by a new story generated by a provocative tweet.

The power of social media to influence politics is enhanced due to their ability to amplify messages quickly through diverse media platforms. Social media have become a steady source of political content for news outlets with large audiences, especially cable news. Trump supporters regularly tune in to Fox News to cheer his latest Twitter exploits. Talking heads on media that view Trump more negatively, like CNN and MSNBC, spend countless hours attempting to interpret his tweets as the messages are displayed prominently on screen.

The perception that Trump is powerful is enhanced simply by virtue of the amount of attention he draws. Politicians can use the amplification power of social media to galvanize public opinion and to call people to action. These benefits of Twitter amplification have been shown to empower men substantially more than women.

Male political journalists have a greater audience on Twitter than their female peers, and they are more likely to spread the political messages of men than women Usher, Holcomb, and Littman, Social media host discourse that is increasingly incivil and politically polarizing.

Offhanded remarks are now released into the public domain where they can have widespread political consequences van Dijck, He makes expansive use of adjectives, typically to describe himself in positive terms and to denigrate others. Politicians have engaged in partisan Twitter wars that have further divided Republicans and Democrats, conservatives and liberals.

The Twitterverse is highly prone to deception. Twitter and other social media have contributed to—even fostered—the proliferation of false information and hoaxes where stories are entirely fabricated. False facts spread fast through social media. They can make their way onto legitimate news platforms and are difficult to rebut as the public has a hard time determining fact from fiction. In fact, an MIT study found that people are more likely to pass on false stories through their networks because they are often novel and generate emotional responses in readers Vosoughi, Roy, and Aral, Misinformation is often targeted at ideological audiences, which contributes the rise in political polarization.

The situation is even more severe for Twitter, where people can be completely anonymous and millions of automated bots and fake accounts have flooded the network with tweets and retweets.

These bots have quickly outrun the spam detectors that Twitter has installed Manjoo, The dissemination of false information through Twitter is especially momentous amidst the uncertainty of an unfolding crisis where lies can spread much faster than the truth Vosoughi, Roy, and Aral, Misinformation and hoaxes circulated widely as the shooting of seventeen students at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland Florida in February of was unfolding.

Conspiracy theories about the identity of the shooter pointed in the wrong direction. False photos of the suspect and victims were circulated. Tweets from a reporter with the Miami Herald were doctored and retweeted to make it appear as if she had asked students for photos and videos of dead bodies. Within an hour of the shooting, Twitter accounts populated by Russian bots circulated hundreds of posts about the hot-button issue of gun control designed to generate political divisiveness Frenkel and Wakabayaski, In the weeks after the shooting, as Parkland students became activists for stronger gun control measures, conspiracy theories proliferated.

A doctored conspiracy video attacking the students was posted on YouTube and became a top trending clip on the site Arkin and Popken, The consequences of the rise of social media and the spread of false information have been elevated by the disappearance of trusted local news organizations from the media landscape. Facebook and Twitter have been reluctant to deal effectively with the flow of misinformation through their platforms and have even refused to remove demonstrated false stories from their sites Hautala, In , Facebook, Twitter, Apple, and YouTube permanently banned alt-right radio host Alex Jones and his site, InfoWars , after failing to take any disciplinary action for years against his prolific spread of abusive conspiracy theories.

But this move by big media companies was an exception. These circumstances have raised the potential for misinformation to unsettle the political system. However, their importance for informing and shaping opinions of people in small towns and suburban communities has often been underestimated. Community newspapers have been far more consequential to their millions of readers than large newspapers of record, such as The New York Times and The Washington Post , whose stories are amplified on twenty-four-hour cable news programs.

People tend to trust their local news outlets, and to have faith that the journalists—who are their neighbors—will report stories accurately. Citizens have relied heavily on local news outlets to keep them informed about current happenings and issues that are directly relevant to their daily lives. Local news stories influence the opinions of residents and routinely impact the policy decisions made by community leaders. Importantly, audiences rely on local journalists to provide them with the facts and to act as a check on misinformation that might be disseminated by outside sources, especially as they greatly distrust national news Abernathy, His tweets can substitute for news among people living in news deserts.

The concentration of media ownership in the hands of large corporations has further undermined truly local news. As independent media organizations have disappeared, they have been replaced in an increasing number of markets by platforms owned by news conglomerates.

Sinclair Broadcast Group is the largest television news conglomerate in the United States and has bought out local stations across the country, including in news deserts. The company has strong ties to the Trump administration and has pushed its reporters to give stories a more conservative slant. The digital revolution has unfolded more rapidly and has had broader, deeper, and more transformative repercussions on politics and news than any prior transition in communication technology, including the advent of television.

Over the past decade, the rise in social media as a political tool has fundamentally changed the relationships between politicians, the press, and the public. The interjection of Donald Trump into the political media mix has hastened the evolution of the media system in some unanticipated directions.

The political media ecology continues to evolve. Politicians are constantly seeking alternatives to social media as a dominant form of communicating to the public. Candidates in the midterm elections turned to text messages as a campaign tool that is supplanting phone-banks and door-to-door canvassing as a way of reaching voters.

New developments in software, such as Hustle, Relay, and RumbleUp, have made it possible to send thousands of texts per hour without violating federal laws that prohibit robo-texting—sending messages in bulk. Texts are used to register voters, organize campaign events, fundraise, and advertise.

The text messages are sent by volunteers who then answer responses from recipients. The strategy is aimed especially at reaching voters in rural areas and young people from whom texting is the preferred method of digital communication Ingram, The tactic also allows politicians to distance themselves from big media companies, like Facebook and Google, and the accompanying concerns that personal data will be shared without consent.

Great uncertainly surrounds the future of political communication. The foregoing discussion has highlighted some bleak trends in the present state of political communication. Political polarization has rendered reasoned judgment and compromise obsolete. The rampant spread of misinformation impedes responsible decision-making. The possibility for political leaders to negatively exploit the power of social media has been realized.

At the same time, pendulums do shift, and there are positive characteristics of the new media era that may prevail.

Digital media have vastly increased the potential for political information to reach even the most disinterested citizens. Attention to the midterm elections was inordinately high, and the ability for citizens to express themselves openly through social media has contributed to this engagement. Issues and events that might be outside the purview of mainstream journalists can be brought to prominence by ordinary citizens. Social media has kept the MeToo movement alive as women continue to tell their stories and form online communities.

Further, there is evidence of a resurgence in investigative journalism that is fueled, in part, by access to vast digital resources available for researching stories, including government archives and big data analysis. These trends offer a spark of hope for the future of political media. The Rise of a New Media Baron and the Emerging Threat of News Deserts.

Research Report. Chapel Hill, NC: The Center for Innovation and Sustainability in Local Media, School of Media and Journalism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Thwarting the Emergence of News Deserts. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina School of Media and Journalism. Vancouver, Canada: The Association of Computational Linguistics, 1— New Media in American Politics.

New York: Oxford University Press. Dutton ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, — Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. University of Birmingham, UK. The Internet Trap: How the Digital Economy Builds Monopolies and Undermines Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Motives and uses of Facebook. Florence, Italy, April 5— — Losing the News: The Future of the News that Feeds Democracy. House elections. Atlanta, Georgia: Emory University. London: Penguin Random House. New York: Lexington Books, — Vancouver, Canada: Association for Computational Linguistics, — The role of social media in activist persistence and political change in the 21st century.

News Across Social Media Platforms Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, September fx, and the broker works well, sending the information I need. Could you please indicate other possible problems. I have attached my code below:. It looks like you might have two clients connected with the same client name can you check. rgds steve. I have tried quite a few different client names, and they are show the same logs. I have also double-checked the user credentials, broker address, port numbers, etc.

and cannot locate where the problem is. Do you think there is any other issues with my code? Further to my question, I have checked the connected clients and tried different names, which does not lead to a problem. Instead, I find that the remote broker can only be connected with the mqttv5.

The code looks ok. What broker are you connecting to and can you see the broker console? I am using the mqtt. fx, and I can see the log in the software. It works well there, just not right in my code. My colleague just help me fix the problem with an additional line of :.

and it works well using the normal v3. Do you have any idea on my two questions on this issue:. Why the mqtt. fx cannot use V3. On mosquitto v2 tlsv1. I have a second rpi zero w that I am trying to make as a backup in case the first breaks. I do have a clone of the sdcard, so I can always use that and this 2nd board, but I wanted to see if I could update to the latest Node-red. So now to my current problem. It just keeps repeating a connecting-disconneted cycle.

How can I find out why it is not connecting? If I change the server to the IP of the 1st board I can connect to it. Thanks for any direction you can point me.

I used the command pip install paho-mqtt — do I still need to install mosquitto? Thanks, Phil. You only need one broker on the network or use a public one like test. org Rgds Steve. Thanks for your help, but you see; I was so clueless that I did not know that the paho-mqtt did not install a broker. I have since installed mosquito and all is well. Thanks again! Thankyou for the wonderful tutorial with lots of examples. Something on these lines, worker.

doSomething will have the resource intensive task for each of the message and should run in a different process. Thanks Steve, The idea is to spawn a new process as and when a new message arrives, process the payload say post to an endpoint API call and terminate that process.

Hope I have been able to explain the use case. Received the script over mail. it is working perfectly for thread implementation but in our use case we would need to exploit the multi cores of the processor and execute them concurrently.

let me start with a warm BIG THANK YOU for your detailed tutorials, your shared valuable information is super helpful!! I wanted to ask how one can get the current number of subscribers for a specific topic? The sys logs show totals but not for a specific topic. Rgds Steve. understood, appreciate you taking the time to reply. enjoy your weekend! Best, RS. Hi You need to manually add a message number to each message and use that to put the message back together.

It is not built into the protocol. What type of message text or binary? Okay, thanks Mr. Steve for the response. Do you have any existing scripts for this? what am i missing out on? I add code and window run code. import paho.

sleep 4 wait client. You are getting an authentication failure probably because you are using mosquitto v2 see note here and basic config file to fix it. I have few devices and want to connect to a particular device to subscribe to all the attribues. I can subscribe and get all the attributes by giving the IP address as a broker and access token of that particular device to the username. Can you please help me how to connect and subscribe to a particular device by using localhost or Hi You cannot send to a device only to a topic.

I think you may not understand how MQTT works. Take a quick look at this. Hi Steve, thanks for the guide. This works really well I can send you the scripts if you would like to see how I did it.

However, when I run my client script from another machine on my network, it fails to connect to the mosquitto broker. Yes like to see them. Can you ping the machine? Yes, the machine pings. Do you think that could be it? Yes, I can ping the machine. I added a rule to my router to allow the unencrypted mosquito port. rgds Steve. Hi Steve, first of all many thanks! very insightful and well structured guide.

I have some doubts regarding the callback functions in scenarios when I have to wait until a certain condition happen. In my app, I want to be listening in 2 different topics and once I have received a message in both of them, perform some calculations with both of them.

To be able receive messages from both topics, the main thread is listening to topic1, and a parallel threads is listening to topic2. periodically check the dictionary values in the main thread and call the calculate function when both are present then clear the values from the dictionary.

You could also extend the client class simply by using client. Steve, Again Great App. I have another question: The broker I am accessing has a config topic and a data topic. I can subscribe to the config topic to see what data is valid in the data topic. I suspect that you may have had clean session false and so when you reconnected you got messages for all of the topics you were previously subscribed to.

MQTT on sends you a message if it has one for that topic. It will only hold messages if the they were published with a retain flag set or qos 1 or 2 and you connected with clean sessions set to false.

I have an application that has a mqtt setup. The basic application works fine. What I am wondering, I have multiple topics and would like to check the state of one particular topic from a different application. What is the best way to do just a one time check for a topic state. And get the state information and then exit.

Hi Just connect,subscribe and check for a message and then disconnect. Hope that helps. When I put localhost or The only problem is that it does not write the message, in fact when I am in localhost the publish does not work I think. Can you tell me why this happens and how can I solve it? If I put back the correct broker everything works. Also mqtt. Client I have not understood well what it is for, it could be also for this that it gives error, maybe I use it wrong? Thank you very much for the tutorials and especially if you can answer my question.

Have a nice day, Daniel. Localhost and The client code is in a class called Client. At the top of the code you see this import paho. client as mqtt import the client this imports the file containing the code and assigns it the name mqtt. I learned a lot from your tutorial. I try to configure the client and test it out. My question in what file should I configure? I appreciate your time. Thank you. It depends on how you are getting the reading is it coming using http etc.

As regards publishing and subscribing they can be the same script and often are. The sender would need to send the data as art of the message or in userdata if MQTTv5 Rgds Steve. Hello, I want to know if it is possible to know if an mqtt client with a particular id has disconnected.

i have a python script which connects to an mqtt server and i have a javascript which connects to an mqtt server. i want to know if from python script i can know if my javascript client disconnected from mqtt server. How to develop application MQTT with Java and how to send data to MQTT server and how to get data from MQTT server.

very good tutorial thank you. it s easy to understand I wish you can make one for MQTT V5. Thanks for your help. Hi I wrote some python scripts that did this and logged the data to a database or log file some time ago but never published them. If that is of interest You can have them as is and modify accordingly or I can rewrite the code so that they work without the old functions but I probably need a week to do this.

Get in touch using the ask steve page. Thanks a lot for the tutorial! The incentive is a low power ESP device that sleeps most of the time and periodically wakes up and checks if there are any pending commands for it. Meanwhile I implemented this as a receiver and sender on my Linux host. Even though my solution seems to work works, I feel that the way the receiver wakes up and asks the broker for new messages is very hackish. What I currently do is the following:. sleep 0. loop 0. disconnect time.

sleep 5 Here the esp chip will go into deep sleep, e. for 5minutes. What is the difference? Hi There is no need for polling. If the client connects with a clean session of false and subscribes with a qos of 1 and then the commands are published with a qos of 1 then when the client wakes up and connects it will receive all of the queued commands.

So my code would look like Wake up process messages wait a bit go to sleep Hope that helps Rgds Steve. I am trying to parse the payload from a BLE Gateway. Would be glad, if you could help me. Thx a lot — Joern. import time import paho. unpackb msg. Client mqttc. connect mqttHost, mqttPort, 60 mqttc. Hi Can you send me the code as an attachment to steve. cope gmail.

com and also an example of the payload you are trying to decode if possible. Change the extension to. txt and. py will be blocked by spam filters Rgds Steve. thanks a lot for your guideline — very helpful for me as a beginner in python as well as mqtt. While trying your example Pycharm, Python 3. With the logging command I recieve this:. I am using test.

org as broker. The b stands for binary and is nothing to worry about. Thank you for your answer. Regarding the failed message — I am using your code — so where might the error could be? Thx a lot again! Hi The script is probably ending before the message arrives increase the time. sleep to 20 secs rgds steve. can you explain one by one? Thank you very much Steve! Also what do you mean by cycle is done?

Hey Steve, what happens if the broker receives a message on the same channel at the exact same time? One more Question: What happens if a client receives a multiple messages on the same topic on the exact same time? For example when I have two raspberry pies as clients which are publishing data to each other? Kind regards, John. Thank you! But there will be a bigger delay then? I calculated the delay with seven different clients a, all publishing to one client b on a specific topic and the delay till this client b publishes back an answer is sometimes over 1.

The delay is getting bigger the more a clients are sending a message to the client b. Maybe better to use the ask steve page rgds Steve. Hello Steve, I want to store the sensor data which is published on MQTT Broker into a database. I followed your article and it is working properly. I used PAHO Mqtt client to subscribe to the topic. When this paho mqtt client is subscribed to the topic, the data is stored in database.

So how this paho mqtt client can be subscribed to the mqtt broker all the time so that the data will always be stored in the database. Is there any way that paho client is subscibed to the mqtt broker 24×7? Or is there any other way so that each and every message published on the mqtt broker will be saved in the database? Hi Steve I have installed MQTT broker mosquitto on my windows and created a MQTT service port However when i am trying to run your script, the client is unable to set up connection with broker.

you need the address of the windows machine running mosquitto. Go the the command line and type ipconfig it will show you the address. Hi Steve, hope everything is going well, I have a problem with MQTT, as I imported paho. client as MQTT and it is working only on pycharm, but when I run a publish.

py or subscribe. py files on VSCode it gives me: ImportError: No module named paho. client, how can I fix it? I prefer to work using VSCode.

you may need to install the module using vscode rgds steve. iam stared to do a project to create a dashboard in cumilocity IOT server. mqtt box is using for testing cumilocity APIs.. do you have any material or idea where to start with.. all your vedios are so informative. I try to connect small model cars via MQTT to a broker. Every time they pass a certain section of the track, they have to connect to the broker, subscribe, send a message with the section and after they receive a message from the broker, they unsubscribe and disconnect again.

This works quite well so far, but only the first time. It is not due to the flags. Have you got an idea whats the problem here? class carClient: def run self, position : self. sleep 1 self. sleep 4 self. disconnect self. run instance of the class where all the mqtt methods are. Hi I took a look at the complete code and it looks ok.

There is no need to stop the loop but you should disconnect. Can you check that the run function is being called more than once. Hey Steve, thanks for the fast reply. As soon as I use the disconnect — method, the client car is not publishing again if it crosses the section a second time. Hi Can you use the ask steve page and send me a copy of the code and we can deal with it via email rgds steve.

Hi Steves I want to send mqtt data to other process using multiprocessing and do something in this process like send it to can bus. Could you help me. send msg. Hi Are you sending it to a process on the same machine? Do you want to use D-Bus Rgds Steve. And I have never used D-Bus. My purpose is send data to other process now i use multiprocessing package in python but if this thing give me the bester way, no problem.

Ok I think I get what you mean can you send your script to me using the ask steve page. Hi, I am in a great trouble in working with MQTT in Raspberry Pi and Arduino. The task now is that I have got RPi-A and RPi-B and they need to communicate through MQTT. RPi-A gets some information and sends it to RPi-B. RPi-B makes the decision and sends back the result to RPi-A. I have seen some examples in sending one way, say RPi-A is the publisher and RPi-B is the subscriber.

Do you have any suggestions. I am not good at programming and communication. Could you help suggest an example so that I can solve the problem and understand the logic? Really Thanks. my connection was successful and able to PUBLISH, but I do not get any message from my SUBSCRIBE subscribe topic does show up at AWS IOT test. the only difference between your example and what I do was via the port with ALPN. Hi Looks ok. Did you say you can publish ok?

Hello everyone, I made a SDR-POCSAG receiver with decodes pager messages. It spits out these messages on the terminal. to find a simple way to get those messages converted into MQTT messages. Anyone any suggestions on how to achieve this? Much appreciated! Are you in a position to run a python program on the device. Any help in this regard will be much appreciated. If you are on a linux system then Python is already installed and all you need to do is run it from the command line.

org rgds steve. Steve, can you tell me what is causing this error? I think I am doing what you are instructing in this document. Python 3. Hi, I want to run a stress test to see the performance of current backend infrastructure and specifically the Mqtt broker feature. Clone account 10 we have a tool to clone users 2. Get a session for the 10 cloned users client — server.

xx:xxxx Create topics for all the DoSs and publish a message with qos type 2. We are interested to know: CPU Memory Apdex, response times, network, errors of login and get a session, connect to the broker, subscribe to the topics and publish messages. hi steve, thanks for this page. as a beginner i want to ask u can we connect multiple publisher and subscribers with the same program above or do it in different way.

please help me with this. Yes but they all need different client ids.

The American media system has undergone significant transformations since the advent of new media in the late s. During the past decade, social media have become powerful political tools in campaigns and governing. This article explores three major trends related to the rise of social media that are relevant for democratic politics in the United States.

First, there is a major shift in how and where people get political information, as more people turn to digital sources and abandon television news. The political media system in the United States has undergone massive transformations over the past three decades. The scope of these new media developments is vast, encompassing both legacy sources as well as entirely novel communication platforms made possible by emerging technologies.

The new media era began with the infotainment trend in the s when television talk shows, talk radio, and tabloid papers took on enhanced political roles.

Changes became more radical when the Internet emerged as a delivery system for political content in the s. Digital technology first supported platforms where users could access static documents and brochures, but soon hosted sites with interactive features. The public gained greater political agency through technological affordances that allowed them to react to political events and issues, communicate directly to candidates and political leaders, contribute original news, images, videos, and political content, and engage in political activities, such as working on behalf of candidates, raising funds, and organizing protests.

At the same time, journalists acquired pioneering mechanisms for reporting stories and reaching audiences. The evolution of social media, like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, from platforms facilitating networks among friends to powerful political tools has been an especially momentous development.

The political role of social media in American politics was established during the presidential election. The campaign exploited the networking, collaborating, and community-building potential of social media. It used social media to make personalized appeals to voters aided by data analytics that guided targeted messaging. Voters created and amplified messages about the candidates without going through formal campaign organizations or political parties Stromer-Galley, The most popular viral videos in the campaign, BarelyPolitical.

Who controls, consumes, and distributes information is largely determined by who is best able to navigate digital technology. Social media have emerged as essential intermediaries that political and media actors use to assert influence.

Political leaders have appropriated social media effectively to achieve political ends, ever-more frequently pushing the boundaries of discursive action to extremes. Aided by social media, he has exceeded the ability of his modern-day presidential predecessors to achieve these ends. Social-media platforms facilitate the creation and sustenance of ad hoc groups, including those on the alt-right and far left of the political spectrum. Social media have low barriers to entry and offer expanded opportunities for mass political engagement.

They have centralized access to information and have made it easier for the online population to monitor politics. Growing numbers of people are using social media to engage in discussions and share messages within their social networks Owen, b.

Effective use of social media has contributed to the success of social movements and political protests by promoting unifying messages and facilitating logistics Jost et al. The MeToo movement became a global phenomenon as a result of social media spreading the word. Actress Alyssa Milano sent out a tweet encouraging women who had been sexually harassed or assaulted to use the MeToo hashtag in their social-media feed.

Within twenty-four hours, 4. The number grew to over eighty-five million users in eighty-five countries on Facebook in forty-five days Sayej, Further, a small number of companies, notably Google and Facebook, have inordinate power over the way that people spend their time and money online. Their ability to attract and maintain audiences undercuts the ability of small firms, local news outlets, and individuals to stake out their place in the digital market Hindman, This article will focus on three major trends related to the rise of social media over the past decade that have particular significance for democratic politics and governance in the United States.

First, the shift in audience preferences away from traditional mass media to digital sources has changed how people follow politics and the type of information they access.

Many people are now getting news from their social-media feeds which contributes to rampant political insularity, polarization, and incivility. The number of options available to news consumers has grown dramatically as content from ever-increasing sources is distributed via print, television, radio, computers, tablets, and mobile devices.

More Americans are seeking news and political information since the presidential election and the turbulent times that have followed than at other periods in the past decade. At the same time, seven in ten people have experienced news fatigue and feel worn out from the constant barrage of contentious stories that are reported daily Gottfried and Barthel, This is not surprising when the breaking news within a single day in September featured Dr. One of the most notable developments in the past decade has been the shift in where and how Americans get their news and information about politics.

There has been a marked transition in audience preferences away from traditional media, especially television and print newspapers, to online news sources and, more recently, news apps for smartphones. Social media have become major sources of news for millions of Americans, who either get political information deliberately through subscriptions or accidentally come upon it in their newsfeed.

Thus, Table 1 presents the percentage of adults who frequently used specific types of media to get information about the , , and presidential elections. When cable, network, and local channels are considered together, television was the main source of campaign information throughout this period for a majority of the public. Like network news, local TV news has dropped in popularity over the past two decades. This decline may in part be attributed to the disappearance of independent local news programs that have been replaced by shows operated by Sinclair Broadcast Group, a conservative media organization.

The nineteen-percentage point gap in favor of television news had closed to seven percentage points in a single year Gottfried and Shearer, Reliance on social media for news and political information has increased steadily over the past decade. Table 2 presents data from the Pew Research Center indicating the percentage of Americans who regularly used at least one social-media site like Facebook, Twitter, or LinkedIn over time.

Few people were active on social media between and The Tea Party, a loosely-organized populist movement that ran candidates who successfully attained office, relied heavily on social media as an alternative to the mainstream press which they regularly assailed.

A decade ago, only the most interested and tech-savvy citizens used social media for politics. Young people were advantaged in their ability to leverage social media due to their facility with the technology and their fascination with the novelty of this approach to politics. In the past, elites employed social media primarily to set the agenda for mainstream media so that their messages could gain widespread attention.

Today, political leaders not only engage social media to control the press agenda, they can also use these platforms effectively to cultivate their political base. In addition, elites use social media to communicate with one another in a public forum.

In , Donald Trump and North Korean president Kim Jong Un traded Twitter barbs that escalated tensions between the two nations over nuclear weapons. Social media are distinct from other digital channels in that they host interactions among users who set up personal profiles and communicate with others in their networks Carr and Hayes, Participants use social media to create and distribute content, consume and interact with material posted by their connections, and share their views publicly Ellison and Boyd, Social-networking sites can help people to maintain and develop social relationships, engage in social surveillance and voyeurism, and pursue self-promotion Alhabash and Ma, Users often employ social media to seek out and follow like-minded people and groups which promotes social bonding, reinforces personal and political identities, and provides digital companionship Jung and Sundar, ; Joinson, These characteristics are highly conducive to the adaptation of social media—especially Twitter—for political use.

The current era of networked communication originated with the invention of the World Wide Web in , and the development of Weblogs, list-serves, and e-mail that supported online communities. The first social-media site, Six Degrees, was developed in and disappeared in as there were too few users to sustain it. Niche sites catering to identity groups, such as Asian Avenue, friendship circles, including Friendster and MySpace, professional contacts, like LinkedIn, and public-policy advocates, such as MoveOn, also emerged in the late s and early s.

The advent of Web 2. When Twitter was founded in , it was envisioned as a microblogging site where groups of friends could send short messages tweets to their friends about what was happening in their lives in real time in a manner akin to texting. Users could also upload photos, GIFs, and short videos to the site.

Twitter initially imposed a character constraint on tweets which was the limit that mobile carriers placed on SMS text messages. The limit was increased to characters in as the popularity of the platform peaked and wireless carrier restrictions on the amount of content users could send were no longer relevant.

Users easily circumvent the character limit by posting multiple tweets in sequence, a practice used frequently by Donald Trump. While the actual number of Twitter followers is difficult to verify as many accounts are dormant or controlled by bot software, it is estimated that there were million active monthly users worldwide in Statista, Still, it took Twitter twelve years to turn a profit for the first time when it increased attention to ad sales Tsukayama, Trump was on Twitter seven years prior to his quest for the presidency.

His signature Twitter style was established during his days on the reality TV program The Apprentice , and it has changed little since he launched his political career. His messages are expressed conversationally using an accessible, informal, fourth-grade vocabulary. They are often conflicting, confusing, and unclear, which allows users to interpret them based on their own preconceptions. His posts are repetitious and have a similar cadence which fosters a sense of believability and familiarity among his loyalists Graham, Social-media users often employ social media to seek out and follow like-minded people and groups which promotes social bonding, reinforces personal and political identities, and provides digital companionship.

Trump has bragged that his control over Twitter paved his path to the White House Tatum, As a presidential candidate, Trump effectively engaged Twitter to publicize his thoughts, attack his long list of enemies, and hijack political discourse. His supporters became ardent followers of his Twitter messages during the campaign. In contrast, Trump made broad, general declarations that lacked evidence Stromer-Galley, and claimed credit for the accomplishments of others Tsur et al.

Trump regularly produces nasty and outlandish tweets to ensure that he remains at the center of attention, even as political and natural disasters move the spotlight.

Twitter changes the life cycle of news as developing reports can be readily overtaken by a new story generated by a provocative tweet. The power of social media to influence politics is enhanced due to their ability to amplify messages quickly through diverse media platforms.

Social media have become a steady source of political content for news outlets with large audiences, especially cable news. Trump supporters regularly tune in to Fox News to cheer his latest Twitter exploits. Talking heads on media that view Trump more negatively, like CNN and MSNBC, spend countless hours attempting to interpret his tweets as the messages are displayed prominently on screen.

The perception that Trump is powerful is enhanced simply by virtue of the amount of attention he draws. Politicians can use the amplification power of social media to galvanize public opinion and to call people to action.

These benefits of Twitter amplification have been shown to empower men substantially more than women. Male political journalists have a greater audience on Twitter than their female peers, and they are more likely to spread the political messages of men than women Usher, Holcomb, and Littman, Social media host discourse that is increasingly incivil and politically polarizing.

Offhanded remarks are now released into the public domain where they can have widespread political consequences van Dijck, He makes expansive use of adjectives, typically to describe himself in positive terms and to denigrate others. Politicians have engaged in partisan Twitter wars that have further divided Republicans and Democrats, conservatives and liberals.

The Twitterverse is highly prone to deception. Twitter and other social media have contributed to—even fostered—the proliferation of false information and hoaxes where stories are entirely fabricated.

client as mqtt the script runs but is useless. News Across Social Media Platforms The nineteen-percentage point gap in favor of television news had closed to seven percentage points in a single year Gottfried and Shearer, The sender would need to send the data as art of the message or in userdata if MQTTv5 Rgds Steve. However at this stage it may be better to just accept them and proceed with the script. Steve for the response.

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